Graduation Courses After 12th in India: A Detailed Guide

Your choice of graduation course after 12th can shape the subjects you study, the skills you build and the career paths you can explore. It can also influence how much time and money you invest in higher education. 

This guide summarises major graduation options after 12th, practical ways to decide, admissions and fee patterns, expected career outcomes, and next steps so you can move from board exams to a programme that fits your interests and goals with more confidence.

How to Choose the Right Course After 12th

Deciding between many graduation courses after 12th can feel overwhelming. A simple framework helps: clarify your interests and strengths, review course curriculum and recognition, assess industry demand and salary prospects, and map practical constraints like location, cost and timeline. Below are step-by-step checkpoints and a checklist you can use while comparing options.

• Start with a self-assessment: Consider your strongest subjects, interests and the types of problems or activities you enjoy.
• Map the study commitment: Compare undergraduate degrees with longer professional pathways that may involve entrance examinations, internships, supervised training or postgraduate study.
• Check practical eligibility: Review required Class 12 subjects, minimum marks, entrance examinations and institution-specific criteria.
• Look for transferable skills: Communication, digital literacy, data interpretation, problem-solving and collaboration can support several career pathways.
• Test your interest: Where practical, use introductory projects, internships, workshops or short courses to understand what the subject involves before committing.

Assess Your Interests, Aptitude and Career Goals

Assessing interests and aptitude is more than picking a favourite subject; it's matching the day-to-day of likely careers to your personality and long-term aims.
 

• Interest mapping: List five subjects, problems or activities you genuinely enjoy and compare them with the work involved in your shortlisted fields.  e.g., coding for CS, patient care for medicine
• Aptitude assessment: Standardised aptitude assessments and career counselling can provide additional information, but they should be used as one input rather than as a final decision. 
• Work-style fit: Consider whether you prefer analytical, creative, people-focused, technical, field-based or research-oriented work instead of relying on broad personality labels. 
• Career horizon: Decide whether your priority is early employment, a professional qualification, entrepreneurship, public-sector examinations, postgraduate study or research. 
• Alternative routes: Keep one or two realistic alternatives that meet your eligibility and still support related career interests. Do not assume that lateral entry or transfer will automatically be available later. 

Actionable tip: Spend a week shadowing professionals or doing short online projects in your top 2-3 interest areas before finalising choices.

Check Curriculum, Practical Training and Accreditation

Course titles can hide big differences. A B.Sc in Biotechnology at one college may emphasise lab work and internships; another may focus more on classroom theory. Accreditation and practical exposure matter when evaluating graduation courses after 12th.
 

• Curriculum depth: Review the first two years' syllabus online, core subjects, electives, project work and lab hours. Look for hands-on modules and capstone projects.
• Practical training: Check mandatory internships, clinical rotations (for medical/allied health), industrial training or fieldwork opportunities.
• Faculty and facilities: Faculty quality, lab equipment, research centres, and industry tie-ups influence skill acquisition.
• Recognition and professional requirements: For regulated or professional fields, check the recognition, approval, counselling and registration requirements applicable to that particular course. Different regulators oversee different professional areas, so you shouldn't apply one approval framework to every programme. 
• Career evidence: Review recent placement information, alumni career paths and the types of roles graduates actually enter rather than relying only on promotional salary figures. 

Actionable tip: Ask colleges for recent internship partner lists and a copy of the course's academic calendar before applying.

Evaluate Career Demand, Earnings and Mobility Carefully 

Choosing a course without checking market demand adds risk. Evaluate short- and long-term employability, typical entry-level pay, and geographic or international mobility of the qualification.

• Current hiring: Review recent job descriptions for the roles you hope to enter and identify the qualifications and skills employers request. 
• Earning potential: Compare realistic salary evidence by role, city, employer, qualification stage and experience. Avoid using the highest reported package as the expected outcome for a typical graduate. 
• Professional mobility: Some degrees are widely recognised (e.g., engineering, many BSc degrees, LLB for certain jurisdictions with further qualification). Medical degrees often require country-specific licensing for international practice.
• Upskilling potential: Consider how easy it is to pivot with that degree; for example, a B.Sc in Computer Science or Statistics can provide a smoother path into data science than many pure arts degrees.

Actionable tip: Build a five-year career map for your top two or three options covering qualification steps, likely early-career roles, skills to develop and any additional professional requirements. 

Medical & Allied Health Science Courses After 12th

Medical and allied-health pathways have course-specific eligibility and admission requirements. Because these rules can affect whether you are permitted to enrol or practise professionally, always check the current requirements before applying. 

MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery)

MBBS is the primary professional medical degree in India. It is long and demanding but leads to careers as a physician, surgeon and clinical specialist after postgraduate training.

• Admission and Eligibility: Admission to MBBS in India is through NEET-UG under the applicable national admission framework. Eligibility includes the prescribed Class 12 science subjects and other conditions under the prevailing rules. Candidates should verify the current NEET eligibility criteria and counselling requirements for their admission year. 

• Fees and Cost: There is no single meaningful national fee range for MBBS. Fees can differ substantially by state, institution type, seat category and other applicable charges. Compare the complete published fee structure of the institutions you are considering.

• Additional Costs: Students may also need to account for hospital uniforms, clinical materials, examination fees and registration charges. Scholarships and fee-waiver options may be available in some states and institutions.

BDS (Bachelor of Dental Surgery)

BDS is the professional dental qualification to become a dentist. It requires clinical training, internships and registration with the dental council to practice.

• Admission and Eligibility: Admission follows the applicable NEET-UG and counselling framework. Students should verify current academic eligibility, counselling rules, internship requirements and professional-registration conditions before applying. 
• Fees: Government dental colleges may charge approximately ₹15,000 to ₹60,000 per year, or roughly ₹75,000 to ₹3,00,000 over the five-year course. Private-college tuition may range from approximately ₹2,00,000 to ₹10,00,000 per year, with total fees potentially ranging from ₹10,00,000 to ₹50,00,000 or more depending on the institution and state.

BAMS (Bachelor of Ayurvedic Medicine and Surgery)

BAMS trains students in Ayurvedic medicine, combining classical Ayurvedic theory with clinical training and modern diagnostic methods in many colleges.

• Admission and Eligibility: Admission is subject to the applicable NEET-UG requirements and counselling process. Check the latest eligibility and admission rules for the relevant academic year rather than relying on historical college-specific criteria. 
• Fees: Government college fees may range from approximately ₹3,000 to ₹1,20,000 per year depending on the state. Private colleges may charge around ₹2,00,000 to ₹5,00,000 per year, with total programme fees commonly ranging from approximately ₹12,00,000 to ₹30,00,000 or more.
• Training: Clinical internship requirements form part of the course.

BHMS (Bachelor of Homoeopathic Medicine and Surgery)

BHMS prepares students for homoeopathic practice and includes classroom learning, practicals, and clinical internships.

• Admission and Eligibility: Eligibility, admission processes, programme duration and clinical-training requirements can vary by institution and applicable regulations. Check the exact Class 12 subject requirements and practical-training structure of each shortlisted programme. 
• Fees: Government institutions may have total fees ranging from approximately ₹1,000 to ₹1,50,000 in some cases, while private colleges may charge approximately ₹1,00,000 to ₹4,00,000 in total.
• Training: The extent of clinical exposure and practical training can differ across colleges.

BPT (Bachelor of Physiotherapy)

BPT focuses on rehabilitation, physiotherapy techniques and practical patient care, preparing graduates to work in hospitals, clinics and sports settings.

• Admission: Admission may be through entrance examinations or merit-based selection using Class 12 marks.
• Eligibility: Candidates generally require 10+2 with PCB, although some institutions may accept related academic backgrounds.
• Fees: Government college fees may range from approximately ₹5,000 to ₹2,00,000 in total, while private institutions may charge approximately ₹1,00,000 to ₹4,00,000 in total.
• Training: Internships and clinical postings are commonly included in the programme.

B.Sc Nursing and GNM 

B.Sc Nursing is a degree pathway, while General Nursing and Midwifery (GNM) is a separate nursing qualification. 

• Admission and Eligibility: Under current nursing eligibility requirements, B.Sc Nursing follows a 10+2 science route with Physics, Chemistry, Biology and English, subject to the prescribed marks and other conditions. GNM also follows a 10+2 eligibility route, with its own subject and marks requirements. Students should check current nursing eligibility and admission rules before applying. 
• Fees: B.Sc Nursing fees at government colleges may range from approximately ₹5,000 to ₹2,00,000 in total, while GNM fees may range from around ₹25,000 to ₹1,50,000 depending on the institution.
• Professional Requirement: Registration with the relevant nursing council is required for clinical practice.

B.Optom (Bachelor of Optometry)

B. Optom trains students in vision science, eye testing, optics, and clinical refraction. Graduates can work in eye clinics, hospitals and optical retail settings.

• Admission and Eligibility: Eligibility, programme structure and professional requirements vary, so compare institutions carefully and confirm the science-subject requirements and practical clinical exposure before applying. 
• Fees: Government seats may cost approximately ₹3,000 to ₹1,50,000 in total, while private institutions may charge roughly ₹1,00,000 to ₹3,00,000.
• Training: Practical clinical postings and internships with eye-care facilities are important parts of the course.

BVSc / Veterinary Science

BVSc trains students to diagnose, treat and manage animal health, a specialised path that prepares graduates for veterinary practice, research and livestock industry roles.

• Admission and Eligibility: Entry requirements, counselling routes and professional conditions should be checked against the applicable current rules before applying. 
• Fees: Government colleges may charge approximately ₹20,000 to ₹2,00,000 in total, while private veterinary colleges may charge roughly ₹1,00,000 to ₹5,00,000.
• Training: Clinical practical work, hospital exposure and field training are generally part of the programme.

B.Sc Life-Science Programmes (Various Specialisations)

B.Sc. Medical covers life-science specialisations such as Biotechnology, Microbiology, Biochemistry, Genetics and more. These degrees are versatile for laboratory roles, research assistant positions and further study.

• Admission: The precise career route depends on the subject combination, postgraduate study, practical experience and employer requirements. 
• Fees: Government college fees may range from approximately ₹20,000 to ₹1,00,000 in total, while private college fees may range from approximately ₹1,00,000 to ₹3,00,000.
• Practical Exposure: Students interested in research or diagnostics can look for programmes offering laboratory rotations, internships and industry exposure.

Engineering, Technology and Science Courses After 12th 

For students from PCM and related backgrounds, non-medical and engineering courses open diverse pathways from core engineering to computer science and applied sciences. Below are concise overviews highlighting admission and outcomes.

B.Tech / B.E. (Computer Science, AI/ML, Core Branches)

B.Tech/B.E. degrees are core engineering pathways offering specialisations in Computer Science, Artificial Intelligence & Machine Learning, Electronics, Mechanical, Civil and many others. Computer Science and AI/ML specialisations are high-growth areas with strong campus recruitment and startup opportunities.

Eligibility and entrance routes depend on the institution. Engineering admissions may use JEE, state-level examinations or institution-specific processes, so students should check the exact route for each target institution.

Computer Science, Information Technology, Artificial Intelligence and related engineering areas can lead towards software, systems, data and technology careers, but employment outcomes vary according to the institution, technical skills, projects, internships and hiring conditions.

Students interested in a technology-focused undergraduate route can also consider the JAIN Online BCA, a three-year programme with electives in Computer Science and Information Technology, Data Science and Artificial Intelligence, Cloud and DevOps, Cyber Security and Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. 

BCA and B.Sc IT 

BCA and B.Sc IT are undergraduate computing routes that can include programming, databases, web technologies, software development and related information-technology subjects. 

Eligibility-  including whether Mathematics is compulsory in Class 12-  varies by institution. Students from Science, Commerce or Arts/Humanities may be eligible for selected programmes.

Possible career directions can include software development, web development, testing, IT support and related entry-level technology roles, depending on the skills developed and employer requirements.

JAIN Online BCA provides a three-year undergraduate pathway for students interested in computing and technology. Its elective options include Computer Science and Information Technology, Data Science and Artificial Intelligence, Cloud and DevOps, Cyber Security and Artificial Intelligence, and Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning.

B.Sc in Mathematics, Statistics, Physics or Chemistry 

Traditional B.Sc programmes provide subject-focused academic foundations that can support careers or further study in research, analytics, education, laboratories and related fields.

Students should assess the postgraduate qualifications or additional technical skills commonly required for their intended career rather than assuming the undergraduate degree alone leads to a particular role.

Best Commerce Courses After 12th

Commerce students can choose between undergraduate business degrees and professional qualifications. Learners from other Class 12 streams may also be eligible for selected business programmes, depending on institutional rules. 

B.Com / B.Com (Hons) / BBA

B.Com (general and honours) and BBA are mainstream college degrees for commerce students. B.Com covers accounting, taxation, business law and finance fundamentals, while BBA focuses on management, marketing, HR and applied business skills.
 

Admission requirements vary by institution and may be merit-based or subject to institution-specific eligibility criteria. Eligibility varies by university. A Commerce background is not a universal requirement for every B.Com or BBA programme, so check the stated admission criteria rather than assuming a stream restriction. Graduates may explore areas such as accounting, corporate finance, banking, taxation, operations, marketing and human resources, depending on their programme and skills

JAIN Online offers both B.Com and BBA as three-year undergraduate programmes. The B.Com includes electives such as AI for International Finance, Accounting and Finance, and International Finance and Accounting, while the BBA offers Finance, Marketing, Human Resource Management, Digital Marketing, and Data Science and Artificial Intelligence. 

Professional Commerce Paths: CA, CS and CMA India 

Chartered Accountancy (CA), Company Secretary (CS) and Cost and Management Accountancy (CMA India) are distinct professional qualifications, each with its own current registration, examination and practical-training requirements.

They can support careers in areas such as accounting, audit, taxation, corporate governance, compliance, costing and financial management.

Students should check the current rules of the respective professional body before planning timelines or combining these qualifications with a degree.

Arts & Humanities Courses After 12th

Arts and humanities degrees lead to diverse careers in public service, education, media, content, research and social sectors. The flexibility of BA pathways allows interdisciplinary study and later specialisation through diplomas or postgraduate study.

BA Specialisations: Psychology, Pol Science, History & Sociology

BA programmes can help learners develop research, communication, analytical and subject-specific knowledge.

A degree should not be presented as direct qualification for every related profession. For example, regulated psychology roles, teaching roles and particular public-sector careers can require further qualifications, examinations or professional registration.

Relevant internships, volunteering, projects and postgraduate study can strengthen progression depending on the chosen field.

Creative and Media Pathways: BFA, Journalism, Mass Communication and Design 

Creative programmes can support careers in areas such as media, advertising, design, animation, film, visual communication and digital content.

Admission may be based on merit, entrance examinations, interviews or portfolios depending on the institution. For portfolio-based fields, the quality of practical work can be an important part of admission and later employment.

Law Courses After 12th (Integrated Legal Studies)

Integrated law programs after 12th combine an undergraduate degree with law (e.g., BA LLB, BBA LLB) and are a common pathway into legal practice, advocacy, corporate law and public policy.

BA LLB and BBA LLB

Admission requirements vary by institution. Examinations such as CLAT, AILET and SLAT apply to particular participating institutions rather than functioning as a universal admission route for every law programme.

BA LLB combines humanities and legal subjects, while BBA LLB combines business and legal study.

For students whose primary interest is management rather than an integrated legal qualification, the JAIN Online BBA offers a three-year undergraduate route with electives in Finance, Marketing, Human Resource Management, Digital Marketing, and Data Science and Artificial Intelligence.

B.Com LLB & B.Sc LLB

B.Com LLB and B.Sc LLB are integrated law programmes that combine legal education with commerce or science subjects, respectively. Admission requirements vary by institution and may include national, state or institution-level law entrance examinations. Students planning to enter legal practice should also check the applicable recognition and professional requirements of the programme and institution before enrolling.

B.Com LLB combines subjects such as commerce, accounting and business with legal studies. It may suit students interested in areas such as corporate law, commercial law or taxation-related legal work.

B.Sc LLB combines science and legal education and may appeal to students interested in areas where technical or scientific knowledge intersects with law.

Career outcomes depend on the learner's area of legal interest, further professional requirements, practical experience and the type of legal or related role pursued.

For students who are more interested in commerce, accounting and finance than in pursuing an integrated law pathway, the JAIN Online B.Com can be a relevant alternative. The three-year undergraduate programme offers electives including Accounting and Finance, AI for International Finance, and International Finance and Accounting. 

How to Compare Career and Earning Potential After 12th

There is no universally “highest-paying” graduation course. Earnings are influenced by the occupation, employer, institution, location, skills, qualifications, professional registration, experience and wider labour-market conditions. 

When comparing courses, consider:

• The roles graduates commonly enter.
• The qualifications required for progression.
• Internship and practical-learning opportunities.
• Current hiring requirements.
• Median or typical outcome information rather than exceptional packages.
• The cost and time needed for further professional or postgraduate study.

Medicine may involve a longer professional training route; technology careers often place strong emphasis on demonstrable technical skills; professional finance routes require completion of their respective qualification stages; and careers in law, analytics and other fields can vary considerably according to institution, role and experience. None should be presented as guaranteeing a particular salary.

Professional & Skill-Based Courses to Boost Employability

Short-term certifications, projects and vocational training can complement graduation courses by helping students develop additional practical skills relevant to their intended careers.

Examples can include:

• Programming, cloud, data or cybersecurity skills for technology learners.
• Digital marketing, design or content skills for media and business learners.
• Financial modelling, spreadsheet or analytics skills for commerce learners.
• Communication, research and presentation skills across disciplines.

Choose additional learning because it supports a specific skill or target role, not simply because a certificate claims to improve employability. Practical evidence of what you can do is usually more useful than collecting unrelated credentials. 

Degree vs Diploma After 12th: Key Differences & Career Impact

Diplomas and polytechnic programs offer faster, often vocationally oriented entry into the workforce with shorter durations (1-3 years) and lower costs. Degrees (3-5 years) provide broader theoretical knowledge and better mobility for higher studies and professional qualifications.

• When to choose a diploma: If you need quicker employment, want hands-on technical skills (e.g., technician roles, certain IT certifications), or cannot commit to a longer degree right away.
• When to choose a degree: If you prefer more career flexibility, plan for postgraduate study, research or professional qualifications (e.g., MBBS/engineering/CA paths).
• Progression options: Some diploma qualifications may provide pathways to further study. Lateral entry is available only in selected programmes and institutions and depends on the prescribed eligibility route. Students should check the specific progression requirements before enrolling. 

For students considering a full online undergraduate degree, JAIN Online offers three-year BBA, B.Com and BCA programmes across six semesters. These programmes provide pathways across management, commerce, finance and technology-focused disciplines.

Actionable tip: If you're unsure, choose a diploma with lateral-entry options or a degree programme that supports internships and industry exposure.

Planning Applications, Entrance Prep & Counselling in India

Admission calendars vary, so use a flexible planning framework rather than fixed assumptions. 

• Early research: Shortlist programmes and institutions, identify entrance examinations and note eligibility requirements.
• Before applications open: Prepare academic records, identity information and other required certificates.
• Application period: Track official deadlines and complete forms carefully.
• Entrance and counselling stage: Monitor examination, result, counselling, seat-acceptance and refund deadlines.
• After admission: Complete verification and fee formalities within the institution's stated timeline.

Maintain a single comparison sheet containing programme name, eligibility, entrance examination, application deadline, total cost, location, practical-learning opportunities and your final decision status. 

Fees, Scholarships, Financial Aid and Cost Management

Managing costs is an important part of comparing graduation courses after 12th. Tuition and other expenses can vary significantly depending on the institution, discipline, location and delivery format. 

When comparing costs:

• Review total tuition across the programme.
• Include examination, registration, laboratory, clinical, equipment or project charges where applicable.
• Consider travel, accommodation and living expenses for campus programmes.
• Check scholarships for which you are actually eligible.
• Compare education-loan interest rates, collateral requirements, repayment terms and moratorium conditions where relevant.

Do not select a programme purely because of a headline scholarship or promotional discount. 

Actionable tip: Request an official breakdown of mandatory and optional charges before enrolling to better understand the likely total cost of completing the programme.

Begin Your Graduation Journey with Confidence

Choosing among graduation courses after 12th becomes easier when you compare courses on factors that matter to your individual goals: eligibility, subject interest, programme duration, learning format, recognition, cost and future study or career pathways. 

Rather than choosing solely on the basis of salary expectations or popularity, shortlist programmes that match your strengths and verify admission and programme information from official sources before applying.

Learners considering flexible undergraduate study after 12th can compare JAIN Online's BBA, BCA and B.Com programmes. All three are structured across three years and six semesters. 

Explore Undergraduate Programmes at JAIN Online

If you are looking for the flexibility of online undergraduate study after Class 12, JAIN Online offers BBA, B.Com and BCA programmes across business, finance and technology-focused disciplines. The undergraduate programmes are structured across three years and six semesters, with electives available in areas such as Finance, Digital Marketing, Data Science and Artificial Intelligence, Accounting and Finance, Cloud and DevOps, and Cyber Security and Artificial Intelligence.

Explore JAIN Online undergraduate programmes and choose the pathway that aligns with your academic interests and future plans.

Frequently Asked Questions

Which course is best after 12th?

The one your Class 12 subjects make you eligible for and your career goal points to. PCB opens medicine and life sciences, PCM opens engineering and technology, Commerce opens B.Com, BBA and the CA, CS or CMA route, and Arts opens BA, law, media and design. Several programmes including BBA, BCA, B.Com, law and design accept students from any stream, so check the stated eligibility before ruling yourself out.

Can I do a BBA, BCA or B.Com if I studied Arts or Science in Class 12?

Yes. JAIN Online's BBA, BCA and B.Com accept a Class 12 pass from a recognised State Board, CBSE, NIOS, IGCSE, IB or ICSE board, from any stream. There is no entrance examination for any of the three.

Can I apply while my Class 12 results are still awaited?

Yes. Students due to appear for the Class 12 examination can apply to JAIN Online's undergraduate programmes and submit results later. This lets you secure a seat without losing an academic year while waiting for board results.

How much does an online undergraduate degree cost at JAIN Online?

The Online BBA is ₹1,35,000 for the full three-year programme paid one-time, or ₹45,000 a year, or ₹22,500 a semester. EMI starts at ₹6,000 a month at 0% interest. A one-time ₹2,500 registration fee and a ₹3,000 annual examination fee apply for students in India. Because the programme is online, there is no accommodation, travel or relocation cost on top. Fees for the BCA and B.Com are listed on their respective programme pages.

Which courses after 12th need an entrance examination?

Medicine requires NEET-UG. Most engineering seats require JEE or a state-level examination. National law schools use CLAT, AILET or SLAT. Most B.Com, BBA, BCA, BA and B.Sc programmes admit on Class 12 marks or university criteria without a national test, and JAIN Online's undergraduate programmes have no entrance examination at all.

How long does admission take at JAIN Online?

Four steps: submit the application form, select your programme, complete payment, and your seat is confirmed. Login credentials, the onboarding kit and learning portal access follow within 48 hours. Paying one-time carries a 15% discount; education loan and 0% EMI options are also available.

Is an online degree valid for jobs and postgraduate study?

Yes, when the university holds UGC-DEB entitlement for your programme, mode and admission session. JAIN Online's degrees are UGC-entitled and JAIN is accredited by NAAC with an A++ grade. Verify the entitlement for your admission session on the UGC-DEB portal before enrolling, and check the eligibility wording of any specific employer, government notification or university you are targeting.

Can I work or prepare for competitive exams while studying online?

Yes, and that is the main reason students choose it. Live classes run at weekends and are recorded, so the three-year, six-semester structure fits around a job, internship, family business or exam preparation. Assessments are flexible and conducted online.

What do I get beyond the degree itself?

At JAIN Online, the undergraduate programmes include AI tools built into the curriculum, access to over 20,000 LinkedIn Learning courses at no additional cost, micro-credentials delivered with EY and Grant Thornton, and the Career Acceleration Program covering resume building, LinkedIn optimisation, interview preparation and communication skills.

Should I choose a degree or a diploma after 12th?

A degree, if you want postgraduate options, professional qualifications or the widest set of employers open to you. A diploma, if you need to start working within one to two years with a specific technical skill. Diplomas do not automatically convert into degrees later, and lateral entry exists only in selected programmes, so check the progression route before committing.

Which courses lead to high-paying careers?

Medicine, engineering, finance, management and law have the highest ceilings, but the ceiling is not the outcome. Earnings track the role, employer, skills, experience and location far more than the degree name, and medicine and CA reach their ceilings only after years of further qualification and training.

How do I actually decide?

Shortlist three programmes you are eligible for. For each, write down the roles graduates enter, the further qualification needed to progress, the total cost including examination and living expenses, and the practical work built into the course. The one that survives all four columns is your answer.